The Antarctic continent is in many ways the counterpart of the Arctic. Some examples are its name, its location, its geography and its main features.
Thousands of years ago, the Greek philosopher Aristotle and his scholars after they knew about some features on the North Pole, started a theory considering there should be something similar to that in the South Hemisphere. The basis of such theory presumed it played the role of that of a counterpart to keep the balance among the continental masses.
The hypothetical continent was called “Anti-Arkthos”. This Greek word stands for Antipode (Anti) and Arkthos, referring to the polar star of the Ursa Minor. Then, this was the origin of the word Antarctica.
The Antarctic continent is placed in the southernost part of the earth surrounding the geographic South Pole.
Another difference with the Arctic is that Antarctica is a continent surrounded by the sea, whereas the former is an ice shelf with no underlying landmass surrounded by continents.
This 14,000,000 sq.km continent is almost totally covered with glaciers (only 2% of the area is not) and it is divided by a NW-SE mountain range splitting the rugged part of the continent to the West and the flatter part to the East.
The temperature records show an average range of 10 ºC for the Antarctic Peninsula in summer. The lowest temperature ever recorded was -89.6ºC in Vostok (Russian Station) in 1983.
Conditions in Antarctica are not favorable for the development of complex forms of life, due mainly to the severe climate that leads to an uneven distribution of fauna. Wildlife is thus concentrated in the coastal and the marine environments because of the rich biomass in the ocean.
In this relatively restricted area, a relevant amount of bird and mammal species is found. There are seven species of penguins, several species of albatrosses, petrels and fulmars among other birds - such as skuas, terns or pale faced (snowy) sheathbills - and four species of seals, one otaridae and about ten species of migrating whales, all of them depending at different scales on the food available in the ocean.
The white continent is one of the most important natural reserves on the planet, and preserving its environment is, at present, the greatest challenge before the nations subscribing to the antarctic treaty.
The Antarctic tourist season begins in mid november and ends in mid march. The itinerary and length of the trip is variable. From 8 days to 2 months. The vessels used are of the ice breaker type with reinforced hulls. According to the choice of vessel one can enjoy anything from a luxurious trip to an adventurous expedition. The closest continent, 1000km. from Antarctica is south America. |
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DISTANCES TO OTHER CITIES IN THE NEARBY AREA
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CITY |
DISTANCE IN KM |
Ushuaia (Argentina)
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1000 |
Cape City (South Africa)
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3600 |
Lyttelton (New Zeland)
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2200 |
Punta Arenas (Chile)
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1200 |
Puerto Argentino (Malvinas Islands)
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1600 |
Christchurch (New Zeland)
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1360 |
Hobart (Tasmania)
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2250 |
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A GEOGRAPHICAL APPROACH
Most of the Antarctic Continent is situated south of the 66°30' S (Antarctic Polar Circle), surrounding the South Pole.
Remote, inhospitable, extreme... Antarctica is the coldest, highest, driest and windiest continent on earth. The landmass is around 14.000.000 Km2, including the iceshelves in summer. The closest neighbor is Southamerica, at about 1,000 km away, while greater distances separate it from New Zealand ( 2,200 km), Australia ( 2.200 km) and South Africa ( 3,600 km.)
In winter the total area is almost twice larger because of the sea ice that is formed around and some ice-free zones, just 2% of the total extension, emerge along the coasts, breaking the monotony of the landscape.
It is the highest of all continents, with an average of 2,050 m a.s.l., mainly due to the layer of ice which varies from a mean of 2,000 to 4,000 m thick. The highest summit, Mount Vinson reaches 5,140 m.
As a consequence of the ocean influence the temperatures along the shores are higher than inland. The “summer” mean temperature is 0ºC on the shores, whereas it varies from -15ºC to -35ºC inland. Summer is not a warm season but the long-lasting days season. In winter it varies from –15ºC to – 30ºC on the coastal area and from -40ºC to -70ºC inland, depending on the location. The lowest temperature ever recorded was 89.3ºC in Vostok.
Winds are extremely strong and blow with violence over the coasts at speeds that sometimes reach 200 km/h. The storms are soundles –no tunders nor lightnings are ever heard or seen- and they may remove the hardest snow. This type of storm is known as blizzard. These strong winds combined with the low temperatures, often create conditions very close to the human tolerance limit, so great care has to be taken when planning activities outside the stations.
Due to the fact that the Antarctic ice represents 90% of the world total and reflects between 50% and 90% of the solar radiation back to the atmosphere, it rules the earth climate, as well as the oceanic and atmosferic circulation and plays a fundamental role in every marine and land ecosystems of the planet.
During the last years, the discovery of the dramatic deterioration of the Ozone layer on the polar regions is a good example to understand how the Antarctic environment may be seriously damaged and, at the same time, how this may have consequences at a world scale.
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ITINERARIES
Elephant Island and South Shetland
These islands are in the warmest, the most humid and the most colorful part of the White Continent.
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This archipelago is Northwest of the Antarctic Peninsula, separated by the Bransfield Strait
The islands present a good succession of contrasts to discover Antarctica. It is the warmest, most humid and more colorful of the continent with rocky cliffs hosting mosses, pale green lichens, two species of vascular plants (Deschampsia antarctica and Colobanthus crassifolius) and other organisms coloring the rocks in orange, black and grey lichens.
In summer, the ice-free shores host large numbers of chinstrap, Adélie, macaroni and gentoo penguins that breed there.
Mammals are represented by Antarctic fur seals, elephant seals and occasionally Weddell and leopard seals. Other birds to see are pintado (cape) petrels, Wilson petrels and pale faced (snowy) sheathbills.
25 de Mayo/King George Island is the largest in the South Shetland and gathers most scientific stations of different countries within the Antarctic Treaty System.
Deception Island shows remains of the volcanic activity that contributed to the generation of the Antarctic landscape.
All the fifteen sites that are regularly visited in this area offer impressive glaciers, mountains and fjords in a breathtaking scenery. They are:
• Bailey Head, Pendulum Cove, Telefon Bay and Whaler´s Bay, in Deception Island;
• Point Lookout and Point Wild in Elephant Island;
• Penguin Island;
• Turret Point, Arctowski Station and Ferraz Station in 25 de Mayo/King George Island;
• Robert Island;
• Aitcho Island;
• Half Moon Island;
• Yankee Harbor in Greenwich Island; and
• Hannah Point in Livingston Island
Northwest side of Antarctic Peninsula
This area offers the most spectacular views on the ice and a large population of Adélie penguins.
This region hosts many of the wandering impressive tabular icebergs coming from the Larsen, Ronne and Filchner barriers.
This section also hosts a large population of Adélie penguins and Summer is the season chosen by several species of petrels to nest.
Paulet Island, Devil Island, Hope Bay, Brown Bluff, Marambio Station ( Argentina) and Snow Hill Island are the most popular places to visit.
West coast of Antarctic Peninsula
Long straits, mountain islands, protected bays and narrow channels occur here. Visitors generally step on the Antarctic continent for the first time in this area of the peninsula.
It is easy to get acquainted very quickly with the dominant landforms of this side of Antarctica: mountain tops never reached by man, vast glaciers flowing to the sea, a shining sun over wide sceneries, sea and ice.
Paradise Bay , as its name may inspire, is well known for the beauty of the scenery and the transparency of its waters. The availability of food brings whales there.
The most visited sites in this sector are the West and South part of Gerlache Strait, Port Mikkelssen and Hydrurga rocks, Cuverville Island, Danco Island, Port Lockroy (hosting the largest gentoo penguin colonies in the Peninsula), Port Neko, Peterman Island, Pleneau Island, Brown Station and Waterboat Point. It is likely the visitor steps on the Antarctic continet for the first time in one of the above mentioned sites.
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THE ANTARCTIC TREATY
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The Antarctic Treaty is an international legal instrument signed in Washington on December 1st, 1959 by twelve countries and has been in duty after it was ratified by all contracting countries on June 23rd, 1961. Argentina ratified the treaty through the National Law Ner. 15.802.
The Treaty applies to the area south of 60º S including all ice shelves. While the Treaty is in force, no activity shall constitute a base for asserting or denying a claim to the right of any State according to the International Law on open seas within the region (Antarctic Treaty, Art. VI).
The signatories were: Argentina, Australia, Belgium, Chile, The United States of America, France, United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern Ireland, Japan, Norway, New Zealand, South Africa Union and the Soviet Union.
The Antarctic Treaty considers two possible categories of signatories:
• Consultative Parties: decision-making countries with an active participation in the Consultative meetings. The group is formed by the twelve Original signatories plus those countries which fulfilled the requirements stated in the treaty, such as demonstrating “substantial research activity” or setting up an Antarctic Station (Acceding Consultative Parties).
• Non-Consultative Parties: States who have signed the treaty, accepting and adhering to its principles and objectives although not carrying out any Antarctic activity at present.
Some important provisions of the Treaty
Antartida shall be used for peaceful purposes only, there shall be prohibited any measure of a military nature. Freedom of scientific investigation in Antarctica and co-operation shall continue and shall be promoted through the exchange of information on scientific programs, the exchange of scientific personnel and the exchange of scientific results. Nuclear explosions and disposal of radioactive waste are prohibited.
The Treaty shall not be interpreted as a renunciation by any contracting Party of its rights or claims to territorial sovereignty or the basis for any territorial sovereignty claim as prejudicing its recognition or non-recognition of any other Sate´s rights or claims. Neither territorial sovereignty nor new claims be asserted by the contracting countries prior to its signature while the Treaty is in force.
The observance of the Treaty is carried out by each Contracting Party, which has the right to designate national observers to visit settlements of any other Contracting Party.
The Parties shall give advance notice of all activities planned (expeditions, occupation of stations, introduction of equipment or military personnel to support scientific activities) and shall meet at suitable intervals to exchange information in the Consultative Meetings that take place annually.
The Antarctic Treaty is the core of a series of subsidiary agreements, which together with the measurements adopted by every Antarctic Treaty Consultative Meeting (ATCV) and the Commitee of the Conservation of the Living Marine Resources (CCLMAR) are called the Antarctic Treaty System (ATS).
The other agreements which are part of the ATS are:
• The Convention for the Conservation of Antarctic Seals (CCAS, London,1972).
• The Convention on the Conservation of Antarctic Marine Living Resources (CCAMLR, Canberra, 1980) and
• The Protocol on Environmental Protection to the Antarctic Treaty ( Madrid, 1991)
Although CCAS and CCAMLR are independent agreements they contain decisions which involve the Parties in the Antarctic Treaty essential matters, such as Article IV on territorial claims. Only the contracting parties may adhere to the the Protocol on Environmental Protection. |
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THE MADRID PROTOCOL
The Protocol on Environmental Protection to the Antarctic Treaty was signed in Madrid in 1991. It is an agreement which does not amend nor modifies the Antarctic Treaty and does not affect any rights nor obligations mentioned in other international documents within the Antarctic Treaty System.
The Protocol designates Antarctica as a “natural reserve, devoted to peace and science”. It prohibits all activities relating to Antarctic mineral resources for the next fifty years.
The Environment Protocol has six Annexes referring to the following issues:
Environmental Impact Assessment
Conservation of Antarctic Flora and Fauna
Waste Disposal and Waste Management
Prevention of Marine Pollution
Area Protection and Management
Liability Arising from Environmental Emergencies
In order to provide an effective fulfillment of the international agreements Argentina has involved with since the Antarctic Treaty was signed, as well as its active participation in the Antarctic Treaty System, our country enacted Decree Ner 2.316. It defines the National Antarctic Policy taking into account Argentina´ s interests in the Antarctic Continent, including the treatment of the special territorial status of the land. |
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CONVENTIONS
- THE CONVENTION FOR THE CONSERVATION OF ANTARCTIC SEALS (CCAS), adpoed in London in 1972. It establishes restrictions on the seal hunting, such as annual quotas, catching seasons and areas. Since the convention came into force in 1978 no commercial seal catching has been recorded in Antarctica.
- THE CONVENTION ON THE CONSERVATION OF ANTARCTIC MARINE LIVING RESOURCES (CCAMLR) was adopted in Canberra in 1980 and came into force in 1982. It has a permanent seat in Hobart – Tasmania, Australia. Its main objective is the conservation and management of the population of finfish, mollusks, crustaceans and all other species of living organisms including birds with the exception of whales and seals which are included in previous international agreements. This convention defines conservation as the “wise use” of living resources.
Evolution
Argentina and Chile are both considered as pioneers of Antarctic Tourism, such as stated in the International Association of Antarctic Tour Operators (IAATO) (*1) . By the end of the 1950´s they had carried to the South Shetland Islands over 500 passengers who paid a sum of money for the transportation.
Some years later, Lars Eric Lindblad would shape the trips towards an educational purpose and he was certain that “what is unknown cannot be protected”. In 1966, and keeping this idea in mind, he led his first expedition of travelers to Antarctica. Only three years later he built up the Lindblad Explorer, a ship tailored to take tourists to the White Continent which gave rise to the shipyard industry on Antarctic expedition ships.
Seal and whale hunting had been the main economic activity in Antarctica up to that moment. At present the continent has become a scenery for exploration and scientific research and every season receives thousands of visitors who travel by ship to get there.
The protagonism of Ushuaia within the Antarctic Tourism is crucial. Figures speak volumes, even though passengers on small vessels and overflights are not included.
During the November 1992-March 1993 season 6,458 people visited Antarctic (*2) out of which 4,116 passengers made use of Ushuaia port as a gateway or transit area to Antarctica.
Such ratio increased for the next years. During the 1999-2000 season 12,967 passengers arrived in ships that put in at Ushuaia, out of the total number of tourists visiting Antarctica by ship that season who were 13,650.
The 2003-2004 season is worth mentioning: 22,817 Antarctic tourists passed via Ushuaia port, a highlighted figure compared to that of the total of 25,406 who arrived to the Antarctic Continent for that season.
During the 2004-2005 season 27,324 passengers arrived in Antarctica (*1), 29 Antarctic ships operated from Ushuaia port, summing up 190 trips, compared to the last record of the previous season with 157.
During the 2005-2006 season 28 ships for Antarctic trips put in Ushuaia port, which made a total of 206 Antarctic trips. This time a world total number of 31,287 (*1) passengers visited Antarctic, out of which 28,440 (*2) made it through Ushuaia port.
For the 2006-2007 season Ushuaia received 33.189 passengers in 37 vessels which carried out 236 trips to the white continent. This figure represents 93% of the world total which was 35.598 (*1).
In summary, over 90% of the total Antarctic flow put in at Ushuaia port, which has become the most active gateway to Antarctica.
*1 Source: IAATO
*2 Source: Tierra del Fuego Antarctic Unit (INFUETUR - Oficina Antártica) |
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A NATURAL HISTORY APPROACH
Conditions in Antarctica are not favorable for the development of complex forms of life, due mainly to the predominantly low temperature, the extremely uneven distribution of light throughout the year and the occurrence of the ice sheet covering 98% of the total surface. Mainly for these reasons wildlife is concentrated in the coastal and the marine environments where the deglaciated areas are found and conditions in general are less severe. The land ecosystem is extremely restricted and almost all forms of life depend on the sea, which supplies the resources for most species.
Flora is quite limited and is represented by several species of lichens, mosses, fungi and two species of vascular plants.
Concerning the fauna the conditions allow the proliferation of plankton, the primary produce of the Antarctic Ocean and the lowest stage of the food chain. Plankton is a community of free-floating organisms which may be subdivided into phytoplankton (plant organisms) and zooplakton (animal organisms)
Among the zooplankton the most dominant group is krill, a shrimp-like animal about 4- 6 cm long which is the main food source for birds, seals and whales, becoming the key stage of the Antarctic food chain.
As regards fish, the Antarctic Ocean count on just 1% of the species out the world total.
Marine mammals and seabirds form the two largest groups of the Antarctic upper fauna. Among the former there is a subdivision in:
Pinnipeds (true seals and fur seals) which include: Weddell seal, Ross seal, Antarctic fur seal (the only Antarctic otarid), Leopard seal and Elephant seal. They all live in the Antarctic Ocean and move either by swimming or on drifting ice floes.
Cetaceans (whales, dolphins and porpoises) whose most common representatives are: Humpback whale, Minke whale Fin whale and Blue whale. Schools may be sighted in summer when they are attracted by the availability of food.
Birds represent the largest order of the upper fauna.
Some of the most outstanding groups of species are:
Albatrosses: the most outstanding being the Wandering Albatross, with 3m wingspan and the Black-browed Albatross.
Petrels: some of them are the Giant Petrel, Pintado Petrel, Antarctic Petrel, Grey Petrel, Snow Petrel and several storm petrels.
Other Antarcti birds are shags, seagulls, skuas, terns, sheathbills and, of course, penguins.
Penguins are birds amazingly adapted to the severe environmental conditions of Antarctica. Some pecies are actually abundant and are often taken as the Antarctic symbol. Although they are flightless birds, they adapted their wings to swim and dive in the ocean. Their body has an underlying thick layer of fat which has the double function of thermal insulation and energy reserve, a feature also occurring in Antarctic mammals. Their feathers overlap each other like scales and form a surface totally impermeable to water and wind. Out of almost seventeen species of penguin worldwide, seven inhabit Antarctica and its surrounding oceans: Adélie, Chinstrap Emperor, Gentoo, King, Macaroni and Rockhopper. |
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SWEDISH EXPEDITION 1901 -1903
Liutenant José María Sobral´s Antarctic overwinterings (Swedish Expedition by Dr. Otto Nordenskjöld 1901 -1903)
The conclusions of the Geography Congresses held in London (1985) and Berlin (1899) emphasized on co-operative international scientific projects in scientific research in Antarctica.
Within this project, Argentina would be in charge of setting up a magnetic and meteorologic observatory in Tierra del Fuego to support the International Antarctic Expedition.
Dr. Otto Nordenskjöld, a Swedish geologist and polar expert, organized a non-governmental expedition to carry out some research in the Antarctic Peninsula. The expedition was supported by Argentina, who supplied food and provisions. Perito Francisco Moreno suggested that a representative from the Argentine government shoud join the expedition as a counterpart for this support.
Liutenant José María Sobral was chosen to this purpose. He would play the role of a meteorology observer. In February 1902 Nordenskjöld, Sobral and other four members of the expedition left the vessel ¨Antarctic¨on Snow Hill Island, near the spot where Mariambio Station is currently placed. They put up a wooden pre-fabricated house they had brought from Sweden (*).
They remained in that place for the whole winter and carried out regular meteorological, magnetic, biology and geology observations as well as prospections which arrived 66º33´S, near the Antarctic Polar Circle. This excursion meant a walking-trip longer than 600 km on totally unknown lands, for the first time in History.
After a hard-working winter, all men were waiting for the arrival of the ¨Antarctic¨ to take them back. However, the vessel never arrived because she had been caught by the ice.
In the early days of 1903 the ”Antarctic” had sunken in the Weddell sea, while sailing to bring the over-wintering party back. After a difficult second over-winter, on November 8 an Argentine Rescue Mission commanded by Captain Julián Irizar aboard the “ Uruguay” corvette rescued all men and borught them back to Buenos Aires. They were gloriously welcomed and the news was spread all over the world.
(*) At present a Historical Monument, this hut is periodically maintained and restaured as part of the activities related to the preservation of World Cultural Heritage. In charge in that moment of the MuseoAntartico Argentino curator, Dr. Ricardo Capdevila who has carried out hard work in this palce and published important articles together with Licenciado Santiago Mario Comerci. |
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BRITISH TRANS-ANTARCTIC EXPEDITION 1914/17 SIR ERNEST SHACKLETON
Sir Ernest Shackleton´s expedition was one of the most remarkable episodes of the history of exploration. His plan was to cross the continent through the pole.
Two vessels participated in this project: the Endurance and the Aurora. The Endurance was supposed to settle in the Weddell Sea, then six men would walk 2,900 km to meet the Aurora´s group on top of Beardmore Glacier. The fact was that no crew member of the Endurance could step on the contient because the ship had been trapped by ice and shipwrecked.
Shackleton and his men recovered three of the lifeboats and first camped one mile away from the shipwreck and then on a drifting block of ice which they called “Patience Field”. They sailed northwards aboard the drifting ice field until they could reach the ocean to launch the boats. After sailing for about six months at sea they could reach Elephant Island (South Shetland) where Shackleton adapted one of the boats, the "James Caird" and set sails with five men towards South Georgia to look for help. They sailed for 800 miles at one of the stormiest seas of the world and sucessfully got to South Georgia in 15 days. They still had to overcome the unknown mountain range climbing until they could reach Stromness Bay, on the other side of the island. There he fit out a rescue operation to head back to Elephant Island four months after his departure where he finally met all of his men, safe and sound. |
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